After the spears were thrown without hitting, the hissing boomerangs came flying over to us...
In 1848, German naturalist Ludwig Leichhardt attempted to cross the entire Australian continent. Tragically, he and his men were never seen again. Leichhardt had arrived in Australia in 1842 and spent two years exploring the mountains between Sydney and Brisbane. Alongside his studies of plants, animals, and geography, he also documented the ancient foraging cultures that were rapidly disappearing.
The narration in this video is taken directly from his diaries:
“I have observed the Aboriginal people in many situations. I have seen them as remnants of powerful tribes, living in humpies outside public houses, and I have seen them as members of proud, independent, and warlike clans.
In my journal, I made many remarks about their astuteness and determination.The black man, armed, is no coward. Calmly, he meets his enemies. His only fears are of unknown dangers—such as the ‘wild blacks,’ whom his superstitions endow with great power, and of course, the white man with his horse and gun.”
Leichhardt reflected on the similarities between Indigenous Australians and ancient Europeans:
“Let us return to the time when the free German lived in his cold forest. It seems to me there is little difference between them and the blacks of this region.
They live in small family groups. The whole tribe only gathers to fight, and rarely do friendly tribes gather together.
They have no formal chiefs—only elders with some degree of influence. Boys are gradually initiated into the knowledge of the elders. Marriages occur either by capturing a woman or by being granted one by a member of a friendly tribe, often as a reward for bravery in battle.
Many men have three or more wives.”
Their battles resembled tournaments more than wars:
“Both sides begin with a battle song, then stand in lines opposite one another. They throw spears, woomeras, and wadis, which are also used in close combat. Shields are used for defense.
Rarely is anyone killed, though many are wounded. Each man seems to have a specific opponent, making the general battle resemble a series of individual duels.
When one man falls or is badly wounded, his allies immediately throw their spears at the attacker. Unable to avoid them all, the aggressor usually flees or is struck down by this coordinated retaliation.
Blood revenge remains upon him until he is either killed or appeases the victim’s relatives through gifts.
True extermination battles appear to be unknown. I only heard of one nocturnal raid—told to me by Baker, who lived with the blacks for 14 years—where the attacking tribe was pursued and many were killed, including women and children. This, however, was exceptional. Normally, women and children are spared.”
Fear of other tribes and spirits deeply influenced daily life:
“They try to do as much harm as possible to enemy tribes, for they live in constant fear of being captured. A black man never travels alone. He always has a companion to keep watch while he climbs trees in search of possums or honey. When I accompanied them and a man climbed for me, he always asked me to keep watch for enemy blacks.
Their fear of surprise attack is matched only by their fear of spirits, with which their imagination populates the forest and night.
All unknown blacks are considered enemies, and they fear them greatly.
Southern tribes call these strangers ‘miles,’ while locals refer to them as ‘jakurus.’
Joint corroboree dances signal peace and alliances.”
Weapon use varied between tribes:
“The Sydney and Hunter region blacks are expert spear-throwers.
Those from the Liverpool Plains excel with the woomera.
Those around Moreton Bay are most skilled with the nulla nulla or wadi, weapons they constantly practice with while hunting kangaroos and kangaroo rats.Mr. Thomas Archer once constructed a bow, and I feared the blacks would adopt this dangerous weapon. Surprisingly, they had no interest.
This reluctance is similar to what occurred in Europe. Even when the Chinese knew of firearms, they kept using bows. Only when confronted by a superior enemy do people adopt superior weapons.
Aboriginal people do not use tomahawks, even though these could inflict far more deadly wounds than their traditional wadis.
Superstition is another weapon—they believe in magical ways of harming enemies, such as conjuring stones into their bodies. Illnesses are explained this way, and the term yaka mudlu describes such sorcery. They travel to high mountains, stay overnight, and conduct rituals to enact these spells.
Every illness, they say, is caused by black magic from an enemy tribe.”
A striking example from Mr. Rusten’s station illustrates their resilience:
“There was a black woman, Suzanne, whom an elder named Old Jerry struck on the head with a nulla nulla. The blow was so severe that her brain was visible. Miraculously, although pregnant, she neither miscarried nor died. She fully recovered in about 12 days.
A young man, Morris, wished to marry her. Mr. Rusten ordered that Suzanne be removed from the hut. She was banished, but she wanted nothing more to do with the tribe that had mistreated her. She set out alone toward the Namoi River.
Morris waylaid her and brought her back. Later, King Steffy—leader of the tribe—struck her violently in the side for attempting to leave. Despite being pregnant, she survived the blow.”
A major fight broke out the next day:
“On 9 May, just before I left Rooen Station, I heard shouting behind the house. I rushed out and saw our black guests in hand-to-hand combat. Suzanne, pregnant and injured, cried out in anguish. She was eventually led to her fire while the men continued fighting.
Morris, a strong young man, entered the fray with another, both armed with helman shields and nulla nullas. They began calmly, almost formally, trading heavy blows, parried with the helman. After several hits, Morris’s opponent collapsed.
Morris fled, chased by the remaining men, while women and even a blind man surrounded the fallen fighter, cradling his head, wiping the blood, and waving away flies.
His lip had been split, and his jaw crushed, though thankfully not broken.
Meanwhile, others fought all around. Most blows were delivered from behind—opponents sneaking up and striking heads. Eventually, the chaos broke into individual duels.”
One memorable duel stood out:
“King Steffy, a strong and well-built man, fought Jimmy using spears, boomerangs, and nulla nullas.
After their spears missed, the hissing boomerangs were launched. They seemed aimed at each other’s feet. Both men avoided them by leaping into the air. The boomerangs soared high and landed far behind the opponents.
When the boomerangs were spent, they closed in and threw their nulla nullas. One struck Tommy, slicing a piece of skin below his ankle.
With that, this particular fight ended, and others caught our attention.
The women tried to intervene, screaming and attempting to separate fighters, but when it was clear they couldn’t, they simply waited for the outcome.”
“Few escaped unscathed. Many were covered in blood, looking like cannibals.
While the wounded lay around or limped through the field, the white settlers looked on idly. When I attempted to intervene, most stopped me, saying:
‘Let them beat each other to death. Then we’ll be rid of them. The more, the better.’I have seen similar fights throughout the colony. I don’t blame the settlers for this—it is the government’s failure.
Fights like these, among a passionate people unable to discharge their rivalries against traditional enemies, will eventually devastate the male black population.”
formatted script with timestamps:
[0:00]
Narrator:
After the spears were thrown without hitting, the hissing boomerangs came flying over to us.
[0:08]
Narrator:
In 1848, German naturalist Ludwig Leichhardt attempted to cross the Australian continent. Tragically, he and his men were never seen again.
[0:18]
Narrator:
Leichhardt arrived in Australia in 1842 and spent two years exploring the mountainous region between Sydney and Brisbane. Alongside his studies of plants, animals, and geography, he also documented ancient foraging cultures that were rapidly disappearing.
[0:34]
Narrator:
The following passages are taken directly from his diaries.
[0:37]
Leichhardt (diary excerpt):
I have observed the blacks in many circumstances. I’ve seen them as remnants of powerful tribes, living in humpies outside public houses. And I’ve seen them as members of proud, independent, warlike clans.
[0:50]
Leichhardt:
The black man, armed, is no coward. Calmly he meets his enemies. He only fears the unknown—like the wild blacks, whom superstition endows with power—or the white man, with horse and gun.
[1:17]
Leichhardt:
Let us return to the time when the free German lived in his cold forest. I see little difference between him and the blacks of this region.
[1:27]
Leichhardt:
They live in small family groups. The whole tribe only comes together to fight—and rarely with friendly tribes.
They have no formal chiefs—only elders with some influence. Boys are gradually initiated into tribal secrets.
[1:42]
Leichhardt:
Marriage occurs either by stealing a wife or receiving one from another tribe—often as a reward for bravery. Many men have three or more wives.
[1:55]
Leichhardt:
Their battles resemble tournaments. Both sides sing battle songs, then stand in lines and throw spears, woomeras, and wadis. Shields are used for defense.
[2:16]
Leichhardt:
Rarely is anyone killed, though many are wounded. Each man targets a specific opponent, making these battles resemble duels. If one falls, his allies immediately throw their spears at the attacker—who either flees or is struck down.
[2:46]
Leichhardt:
Blood revenge follows unless the attacker is killed or offers gifts to the victim’s kin.
[2:56]
Leichhardt:
Extermination battles seem absent. I only heard of one night raid—told by Baker, who lived with them for 14 years. The raid was foiled. The defenders pursued and killed many, including women and children—though such acts are rare.
[3:21]
Leichhardt:
Blacks avoid falling into enemy hands at all costs. They never walk alone. A companion stands watch as one climbs for honey or possums. When I accompanied them, they always asked me to guard against hostile tribes.
[3:57]
Leichhardt:
Their fear extends to ghosts and spirits imagined in forests and darkness. All unknown blacks are enemies they fear greatly.
[4:11]
Narrator:
In southern tribes, strangers are called miles. Locally, they’re called jakurus.
Joint corroboree dances signal peace and alliance.
[4:28]
Leichhardt:
Each tribe masters different weapons. Sydney and Hunter blacks are expert spear throwers.
Those on the Liverpool Plains excel with the woomera.
Moreton Bay tribes prefer the nulla nulla or wadi, used in hunting kangaroos and rats.
[4:53]
Leichhardt:
When Mr. Thomas Archer built a bow, I feared the blacks might adopt it. But they showed no interest—just as the Chinese knew of guns yet kept the bow. Only a superior enemy forces adoption of superior weapons.
[5:21]
Leichhardt:
They don’t use tomahawks, though they could cause worse wounds than the wadi. Their superstition is another weapon—they believe in conjuring stones into an enemy’s body. Illness is explained this way.
[5:44]
Leichhardt:
Yaka mudlu is the term for such sorcery. They climb to mountain tops, stay overnight, and perform ceremonies. All illness is blamed on such black magic.
[6:12]
Narrator:
One remarkable case happened at Mr. Rusten’s station...
[6:15]
Narrator:
A black woman named Suzanne was struck on the head by Old Jerry with a nulla nulla. Her brain was exposed. Miraculously, though pregnant, she recovered in just 12 days.
[6:32]
Narrator:
A young man named Morris wished to marry Suzanne. Mr. Rusten ordered her removed from the hut. She was banished. But Suzanne, hurt and shamed, tried to continue her journey to the Namoi River.
[6:56]
Narrator:
Morris ambushed her and brought her back. Later, King Steffy—tribal leader—struck her violently in the side for trying to leave.
[7:28]
Narrator:
On May 9, the day before I left Rooen Station, loud shouting outside drew me from my room.
[7:33]
Narrator:
Our black guests were engaged in full combat. Suzanne, heavily pregnant, had been struck again by King Steffy. Her cries filled the air. She was led back to her fire as the men continued fighting.
[8:02]
Narrator:
Morris entered the fray alongside another man. Armed with helman and nulla nulla, they traded heavy blows.
After several strikes, Morris’s opponent collapsed. Morris fled, pursued by the others.
[8:29]
Narrator:
Women and a blind man gathered around the fallen fighter, cradling his head, wiping blood, waving away flies. His lip was split and jaw injured, but not broken.
[8:52]
Narrator:
Morris endured further fighting, but allies came to his defense. Chaos erupted. Most blows came from behind—fighters sneaking up and aiming for the head.
[9:09]
Narrator:
Eventually, the crowd scattered and single combat duels emerged. One notable match was between King Steffy and Jimmy.
[9:23]
Narrator:
They fought with spears, boomerangs, and nulla nullas.
After missing with spears, boomerangs hissed through the air, thrown low and dodged by both men springing upward.
[9:49]
Narrator:
When the boomerangs were spent, they hurled their nulla nullas. One boomerang struck Tommy below the ankle, cutting deeply.
[10:04]
Narrator:
That fight subsided. Others drew our attention.
Throughout, women tried to intervene—screaming, separating men—but when they failed, they waited silently for the outcome.
[10:22]
Narrator:
Few escaped without injury. Blood covered many, making them appear like cannibals.
[10:32]
Narrator:
As the wounded limped or lay bleeding, white settlers watched idly. When I tried to intervene, they stopped me, saying:
[10:43]
Settlers (mocking):
"Let them beat each other to death. Then we’ll be rid of them. The more the better."
[10:52]
Narrator:
I’ve seen such battles across the colony. And I don’t blame the settlers—but the government.
[11:03]
Narrator:
Fights like this, frequent among a people whose passions once focused on rival tribes, will soon devastate the male Aboriginal population.
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